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Background
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a complex compound with multiple functions. It is made up of L-ascorbic acid, L-monodehydroascorbic acid (MDHA), and L-dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) and oxidation products of them. Vitamin C is an antioxidant molecule involved in plant and animal metabolism and also a co-factor of many enzymes. You have the plant foods — which are the best human diet — and from those you can get vitamin C. While synthetic vitamin C is chemically indistinguishable from plant vitamin C, the micronutrients and phytochemicals in fruit and vegetables influence how bioavailable vitamin C is.
Figure 1. The redox reactions of ascorbate (Source: Smirnoff N. 2018)
Vitamin C serves a range of functions in the fruit chloroplasts, and is needed for photosynthesis. For one, it's indispensable for directly hunting ROS and H2O2. And, like Vitamin C, it's also a member of the xanthophyll cycle, and prevents photoinhibition in photosystem II (PSII). Additionally, it can provide electrons to both photosystems. A shift in vitamin C concentrations completely alters gene expression for the photosynthesis gene. By deficient vitamin C through the knockdown of the expression of dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), plants lose chlorophyll a, the large subunit of RuBisCO, and absorb CO2. Vitamin C can prevent leaf senescence by preventing photosynthesis and countering ROS. And it's a co-factor of ACA oxidase, which produces the plant hormone ethylene. It is also a co-factor of dioxygenases that make abscisic acid and gibberellins, and break down auxins.
The amount of ascorbic acid in plants depends on a variety of factors. Researchers have also found large variations in ascorbic acid from species to species, and even species to species between varieties and developmental stages. Physiological factors that affect plant production of ascorbic acid include environmental (outside) and internal genetic (inside). The light regulation of plant ascorbic acid. Research indicates that many light-responsive elements are present in the promoters of genes involved in the ascorbic acid synthesis pathway (such as GMP, GME, GGP, GPP, GalDH, and GLDH), and these genes are induced by light. Intrinsic genetic factors include genes responsible for ascorbic acid biosynthesis and regulatory factors. For instance, AMR1 negatively regulates the expression levels of the ascorbic acid biosynthesis genes GMP, GME, GGP, GPP, GalDH, and GLDH. The expression of AMR1 increases with leaf senescence, leading to a decrease in ascorbic acid content.
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References
ROS accumulation contributes to abamectin-induced apoptosis and autophagy via the inactivation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in TM3 Leydig cells
Abamectin (ABA) as one of the worldwide used compounds in agriculture has raised safety concerns on nontarget organism toxicity. However, the study of male reproductive system damage caused by ABA remains unclear. Our aim is to investigate the effect of ABA-induced cytotoxicity in TM3 Leydig cells and their underlying mechanisms. ABA inhibits TM3 cell viability and proliferation via cell cycle arrested in the G0/G1 phase. In addition, ABA-induced mitochondrial depolarization leads to an imbalance in Bcl-2 family expression, causing caspase-dependent apoptosis in TM3 cells. The increased ratio of cells expression LC3 protein and LC3-II to LC3-I indicated the activation of autophagy potentially. Further experiments revealed ABA treatment reduced phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation, and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) phosphorylation. Pretreatment with a PI3K/AKT inhibitor, LY294002, mimicked the ABA-mediated effects on cytotoxicity. Pretreatment with a PI3K/AKT agonist, insulin-like growth factor-1, reversed the effects of ABA. ABA caused the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) by increased intensity of the ROS indicator. However,N-acetylcysteine as ROS scavengers inhibited ABA-induced apoptosis and autophagy and reversed these ABA-mediated effects on PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. On the basis of the above results, it is suggested that ABA exposure induces apoptosis and autophagy in TM3 cells by ROS accumulation to mediate PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway suppression.
Transcriptomic analysis reveals somatic embryogenesis-associated signaling pathways and gene expression regulation in maize (Zea maysL.)
Key message Transcriptome analysis of maize embryogenic callus and somatic embryos reveals associated genes reprogramming, hormone signaling pathways and transcriptional regulation involved in somatic embryogenesis in maize. Somatic embryos are widely utilized in propagation and genetic engineering of crop plants. In our laboratory, an elite maize inbred line Y423 that could generate intact somatic embryos was obtained and applied to genetic transformation. To enhance our understanding of regulatory mechanisms during maize somatic embryogenesis, we used RNA-based sequencing (RNA-seq) to characterize the transcriptome of immature embryo (IE), embryogenic callus (EC) and somatic embryo (SE) from maize inbred line Y423. The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in three pairwise comparisons (IE-vs-EC, IE-vs-SE and EC-vs-SE) was 5767, 7084 and 1065, respectively. The expression patterns of DEGs were separated into eight major clusters. Somatic embryogenesis associated genes were mainly grouped into cluster A or B with an expression trend toward up-regulation during dedifferentiation. GO annotation and KEGG pathway analysis revealed that DEGs were implicated in plant hormone signal transduction, stress response and metabolic process. Among the differentially expressed transcription factors, the most frequently represented families were associated with the common stress response or related to cell differentiation, embryogenic patterning and embryonic maturation processes. Genes include hormone response/transduction and stress response, as well as several transcription factors were discussed in this study, which may be potential candidates for further analyses regarding their roles in somatic embryogenesis. Furthermore, the temporal expression patterns of candidate genes were analyzed to reveal their roles in somatic embryogenesis. This transcriptomic data provide insights into future functional studies, which will facilitate further dissections of the molecular mechanisms that control maize somatic embryogenesis.
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Figure 1. The redox reactions of ascorbate
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