Anti-EREG monoclonal antibody

Molecular mechanisms specific to colitis-associated cancers have been poorly characterized. Using comparative whole-genome expression profiling, we observed differential expression of epiregulin (EREG) in mouse models of colitis-associated, but not sporadic, colorectal cancer. Similarly, EREG expression was significantly upregulated in cohorts of patients with colitis-associated cancer. Furthermore, tumor-associated fibroblasts were identified as a major source of EREG in colitis-associated neoplasms. Functional studies showed that Ereg-deficient mice, although more prone to colitis, were strongly protected from colitis-associated tumors. Serial endoscopic studies revealed that EREG promoted tumor growth rather than initiation. Additionally, we demonstrated that fibroblast-derived EREG requires ERK activation to induce proliferation of intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) and tumor development in vivo. To demonstrate the functional relevance of EREG-producing tumor-associated fibroblasts, we developed a novel system for adoptive transfer of these cells via mini-endoscopic local injection. It was found that transfer of EREG-producing, but not Ereg-deficient, fibroblasts from tumors significantly augmented growth of colitis-associated neoplasms in vivo. In conclusion, our data indicate that EREG and tumor-associated fibroblasts play a crucial role in controlling tumor growth in colitis-associated neoplasms.

Brain metastases (BM) are a devastating consequence of breast cancer. BM occur more frequently in patients with estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) breast cancer subtypes; HER2 overexpressing (HER2+) tumors and triple-negative (TN) (ER-, progesterone receptor-negative (PR-) and normal HER2) tumors. Young age is an independent risk factor for the development of BM, thus we speculated that higher circulating estrogens in young, pre-menopausal women could exert paracrine effects through the highly estrogen-responsive brain microenvironment. Using a TN experimental metastases model, we demonstrate that ovariectomy decreased the frequency of magnetic resonance imaging-detectable lesions by 56% as compared with estrogen supplementation, and that the combination of ovariectomy and letrozole further reduced the frequency of large lesions to 14.4% of the estrogen control. Human BM expressed 4.2-48.4% ER+ stromal area, particularly ER+ astrocytes. In vitro, E2-treated astrocytes increased proliferation, migration and invasion of 231BR-EGFP cells in an ER-dependent manner. E2 upregulated epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) ligands Egf, Ereg and Tgfa mRNA and protein levels in astrocytes, and activated EGFR in brain metastatic cells. Co-culture of 231BR-EGFP cells with E2-treated astrocytes led to the upregulation of the metastatic mediator S100 Calcium-binding protein A4 (S100A4) (1.78-fold, P < 0.05). Exogenous EGF increased S100A4 mRNA levels in 231BR-EGFP cells (1.40 +/- 0.02-fold, P < 0.01 compared with vehicle control) and an EGFR/HER2 inhibitor blocked this effect, suggesting that S100A4 is a downstream effector of EGFR activation. Short hairpin RNA-mediated S100A4 silencing in 231BR-EGFP cells decreased their migration and invasion in response to E2-CM, abolished their increased proliferation in co-cultures with E2-treated astrocytes and decreased brain metastatic colonization. Thus, S100A4 is one effector of the paracrine action of E2 in brain metastatic cells. These studies provide a novel mechanism by which estrogens, acting through ER+ astrocytes in the brain microenvironment, can promote BM of TN breast cancers, and suggests existing endocrine agents may provide some clinical benefit towards reducing and managing BM.