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The testes and prostate are organs that make up the male reproductive system. They have different roles and functions, but all contribute to hormone and semen production.
Fig.1 The male reproductive and urinary systems
The prostate is a small, walnut-shaped gland in the male reproductive system. It sits directly below the bladder, inside the groin. The male hormone testosterone controls how the prostate functions. Prostate cancer occurs when genetic changes cause cancerous cells to grow in the prostate. It is the second most common form of cancer in American men, after skin cancer.
The testicles are another part of the male reproductive system. They include two small, rounded organs that sit in the scrotum, which is a sac of skin below the penis. The testicles produce sperm and male hormones, including testosterone. Testicular cancer occurs when cancerous cells develop in the testicles. Testicular cancer is uncommon, affecting around 1 in every 250 American men during their lifetime. Testicular tumors are divided into primary and secondary types, the vast majority of which are primary. Almost all testicular tumors are malignant, among which germ cell tumors (the most common—seminoma) account for 90% to 95%.
Fig.2 Overview of the Nodal and Activin signaling pathways
Chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery are the 3 main treatments for testicular cancer. The first option for all cases of testicular cancer, whatever the stage is, is to surgically remove the affected testicle (an orchidectomy). Patients who are healthy and the tumors are located only in the prostate can undergo surgery to remove the tumor. Radiotherapy may be needed after surgery to help prevent cancer from returning. Chemotherapy is used to treat advanced testicular cancer or those spread within the body. It's also used to help prevent cancer from returning. Radiation therapy and radiopharmaceutical therapy may increase men's risk of bladder and/or gastrointestinal cancer, and could also cause impotence and urinary problems.
In addition to Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, hormone therapy is also often used to treat prostate cancer. Hormone therapy removes hormones or blocks their effects and stops cancer cells from growing. In addition, targeted and immunotherapy can also be used to treat prostate cancer: such as PARP inhibitors (Olaparib) and Sipuleucel-T used to treat prostate cancer that has metastasized (spread to other parts of the body). Moreover, patients with metastatic testicular cancer often develop the chemically refractory disease, in which KIT D820G, TP53 and NPM1 mutations and mismatch repair defects and MSH2 and MSH6 protein deletions are the most common causes, so sunitinib or pembrolizumab could be used for targeted therapy leading to significant partial ease.
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